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French Society During the Late 18th Century

1. (i) When Louis XVI ascended the throne, the treasury of France was empty as most of the French kings were involved in wars which emptied their treasury. His wife Marie Antoinette was also extravagant and spent too much money of treasury for herself.
   (ii) Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France and along with it was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at immense palace of Versailles.
2. The wealthy class of the Third Estate consisting of merchants, traders, lawyers and rich peasants benefited the most from the French Revolution; feudal obligations were no longer to be honoured by the Third Estate. Tithes, the tax given to the Church, were abolished. The First and the Second estates, i.e., the clergy and the nobility which were forced to relinquish power, now they were forced to give up their privilege, e.g., they could not collect taxes and their land were confiscated.
3. The French society was divided into three Estates in the 18th Century.
   (i) First Estate: It comprised the church and the clergy. They enjoyed certain privileges by birth. They were exempted from paying taxes to the state.
   (ii) Second Estate: It consists of the nobles and other rich members. They were also exempted from paying taxes. They also enjoyed feudal privileges. They were also paid feudal dues from the peasants.
   (iii) Third Estate: About 90 per cent of the population was peasants. They were obliged to work in the fields of their landlords as well as in their houses, and also serve in the army. They were paying all direct taxes like ‘taille’ and a number of indirect taxes also like taxes on the articles of daily consumption.
4. (i) Tithe: It was a tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce.
   (ii) Livre: It was a unit of currency in France discontinued in 1794.
   (iii) Clergy: It was a group of persons invested with special functions in the church.
   (iv) Taille: Tax to be paid to the state directly.

The Outbreak of the Revolution

1. (i) First Estate: Clergy
   (ii) Second Estate: Nobility
   (iii) Third Estate: Business, officials, lawyers, small farmers, artisans, labourers, servants, etc.
2. Only men above 25 years of age, who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage, were entitled to vote in France.
   Other rights given to people were:
   (i) The Constitution started with Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizens.
   (ii) Right to life, freedom of speech and freedom of opinion.
   (iii) Equality before law and other rights were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights, i.e., they belonged to human beings by birth and could not be taken away.
3. Because of bad harvest, the prices of bread rose and often bakers hoarded the bread. The angry women who could not get bread after long hours in the queues stormed into the shops on 14th July. The king ordered troops to put down the riot and the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.
   The middle class, i.e., peasants, workers and traders. was responsible for the French Revolution.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

1. He was a military dictator of France.
   Reforms:
   (i) He passed laws for the protection of private property.
   (ii) He established uniform system of weights and measures.
   (iii) He codified French laws.
   (iv) Many saw him as a liberator.
2. After Jacobins, a new Constitution was formed which denied the right to vote to non-propertied men. It provided two

1. He was a military dictator of France.
   Reforms:
   (i) He passed laws for the protection of private property.
   (ii) He established uniform system of weights and measures.
   (iii) He codified French laws.
   (iv) Many saw him as a liberator.
2. After Jacobins, a new Constitution was formed which denied the right to vote to Non propertied men. It provided two elected legislative Councils, who appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members. However, the directors often clashed with the legislative councils and were finally dismissed. With this, political instability emerged in France which gave rise to military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.
3. The Constitution of 1791 began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights, that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.
   (i) Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
   (ii) The objective of each political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man. i.e. right to liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
   (iii) The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
   (iv) The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
4. Guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. This device was named after Dr. Guillotine who invented it. It was used by Robespierre, who followed a policy of ‘reign of terror’ of severe control and punishment. Those who did not agree with his methods were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If the court found them guilty, they were guillotined.
5. Large sections of the population believed that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 had given the rights only to the wealthier section. So, political clubs played a major role for the people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action. The Jacobin clubs was the most successful of these club. Women too formed their own club to get political rights.

Did Women have a Revolution?

1. It was a political body to which the Three Estates sent their representatives. In France of the Old Regime, the monarch did not have the power to impose taxes, rather he called a meeting of the Estates General to pass the proposals for new taxes. Hence, it was the monarch alone who could decide when to call a meeting of this body.
2. Seeing the revolution of the people, Louis XVI gave recognition to the National Assembly and knew now his powers would be checked by the Constitution. On 4 August, 1789, the National Assembly introduced a law abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges. Tithes were abolished and the government confiscated lands owned by the Church. Ultimately, the government acquired assets worth 2 billions livres.
3. Mirabeau was born in a noble family and became a representative of Third Estate. On 29 June, the Third Estate assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. Mirabeau brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles.
4. Most of the women had to work for a living. They worked as laundresses or seamstresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables or were employed as domestic servants. They could not get education or job training. Only the daughters of rich people could study. Working women had also to take care of their families, i.e., cook, fetch water, queue up for bread and look after children. Their wages were also lower than men. Hence, it is true that women suffered a lot during the old regime.
5. The revolutionary government introduced laws to improve the lives of women.
   (i) Now, schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
   (ii) Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will.
   (iii) Divorce was made legal and could be applied for, by both men and women.
   (iv) Women could now be trained for jobs, could become artists or run small business.
6. There were rumours spreading about the nobles trying to destroy crops. Being afraid of the situation, peasants attacked them. They looted the hoarded grain in the market. They had also destroyed records of the manorial dues. As a result, a large number of nobles fled from their homes and moved to the neighbouring countries.
7. The French Constitution came to power with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law were established. These rights were considered as natural or inalienable rights which belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. It was the duty of the government to protect these natural rights of the citizens

The Abolition of Slavery

1. The conditions of slaves during slave labour
   (i) As the slave trade began in 17th century, the slaves were bought from local chieftains.
   (ii) After branding and shackling, the slaves were packed into ships for the 3-month-long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean.
   (iii) They were sold to plantation owners in the African coast

The Revolution and Everyday Life

1. (i) The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon had achieved glorious victories in wars. This made France realize that only a military dictator like Napoleon would restore a stable government.
   ii) In 1804, he crowned himself as the emperor of France. He set out to conquer neighbouring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family. Napoleon viewed himself as a moderniser of Europe. He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weight and measures provided by the decimal system. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
2. The law was the Abolition of Censorship
   Effects on common people:
   (i) Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where it reached to countryside.
   (ii) They discussed events and changes taking place across the country.
   (iii) Freedom of press also meant that opposing views could be expressed.
   (iv) Plays, songs and festive procession attracted common people through which they could identify with ideas such as liberty or justice
3. Significance of the French Revolution:
   (i) Ideas of liberty and democratic rights were established.
   (ii) Abolition of censorship.
   (iii) End of feudalism.
   (iv) Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen became guiding star of future revolutions.
   (v) The term ‘Nation’ got a modern meaning.
   (vi) Ruling monarch took measures to ensure people’s welfare